An operational amplifier

An operational amplifier Introduction: Anoperational amplifier, which is often called anop-amp, is aDC-coupledhigh-gainelectronic voltageamplifierwith a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output.An op-amp produces an output voltage that is typically millions of times larger than the voltagedifferencebetween its input terminals. Typically uses of the operational amplifier are to provide voltage amplitude changes (amplitude and polarity), oscillators, filter circuits, and many types of instrumentation circuits. An op-amp contains a number of differential amplifier stages to achieve a very high voltage gain. Typically the op-amps very large gain is controlled bynegative feedback, which largely determines the magnitude of its output voltage gain in amplifier applications, or thetransfer functionrequired. Without negative feedback, and possibly withpositive feedbackforregeneration, an op-amp essentially acts as acomparator. High inputimpedanceat the input terminals and low output impedance at the output terminals (ideally zero) are important typical characteristics. Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op-amps cost only a few cents in moderate production volume; however some integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with special performance specifications may cost over $100 US in small quantities. Op-amps sometimes come in the form of macroscopic components, or asintegrated circuitcells; patterns that can be reprinted several times on one chip as part of a more complex device. The op-amp is one type ofdifferential amplifier. Other types of differential amplifier include thefully differential amplifier(similar to the op-amp, but with two outputs), theinstrumentation amplifier(usually built from three op-amps), theisolation amplifier(similar to the instrumentation amplifier, but with tolerance to common-mode voltages that would destroy an ordinary op-amp), andnegative feedback amplifier(usually built from one or more op-amps and a resistive feedback network). An Amplifier is made of: A Gain Block (ideally possessing infinite gain) Feedback A Network that sets the amount of feedback (e.g. resistors) The circuit symbol for an op-amp is shown to the right, where: The power supply pins (V_{text{S}!+}andV_{text{S}!-}) can be labelled in different ways). Despite different labelling, the function remains the same to provide additional power for amplification of signal. Often these pins are left out of the diagram for clarity, and the power configuration is described or assumed from the circuit. Op amps are versatile ICs that can perform a variety of mathematical functions. For this reason, they are the building blocks of many signal processing circuits. They have almost infinite gain, high input impedance, and low output impedance. Because of this, there is no current drawn at either input, and the voltage at both inputs must be equal (they are often drawn with a short connecting them) Op amps have two inputs, an inverting (-) and non inverting (+). A positive voltage source and negative voltage source or ground are connected directly to the op amp, although these are rarely shown on circuit diagrams. There is a single output, which is almost always connected to the inverting input with a feedback loop. Ideal Op Amps: There are three rules for analyzing op amp circuits. In addition to KVL and KCL, any op amp circuit should be solvable with these rules. Infinite input impedance. No current is drawn so: Infinite gain. This means that the input voltages must be equal. Zero output impedance. This means that output voltage does not depend on the output current. Real Op Amps: Ideal op amps are modelled with infinite gain and infinite impedance. While real op amps have high gain and low impedance, they are not infinite. This limiting factor can affect the performance of the circuit, so it should be considered. Another limitation of real op amps is voltage gain. Instead of being infinite, the maximum output voltage is about 1.4 V lower than the supply voltage (this is due to diode drops in the op amp). Ideal behaviour is not an accurate modelling technique when square waves are used. For this type of input, the voltage changes infinitely fast as it jumps from the high to the low parts of the wave. Op amps cant change instantaneously, there is a slight slope produced in the output. This can be measured by the slew rate (with is the change in voltage over the change in time). Rise time is another parameter used to calculate how quickly an op amp can adjust. The amount of time it takes the voltage to change from 10% to 90% of the desired value is the rise time. For application with square wave input, these two factors can affect the response of your circuit. Connecting an Op Amp: Op amps with Dual in Line Packages should be connected to a breadboard as shown here. The notch is at the top of the op-amp, with pins counted counter clockwise from the upper left corner. Operation: The amplifiers differential inputs consist of V_{!+}input and aV_{!-}input, and ideally the op-amp amplifies only the difference in voltage between the two, which is called thedifferential input voltage. The output voltage of the op-amp is given by the equation, WhereV_{!+}the voltage at the non-inverting terminal is,V_{!-}is the voltage at the inverting terminal andGopen-loopis theopen-loopgain of the amplifier. (The term open-loop refers to the absence of a feedback loop from the output to the input.) Op-amp with inverting input grounded through a resistor; input at the non-inverting input, and no feedback With no negative feedback, the op-amp acts as a switch. The inverting input is held at ground (0 V) by the resistor, so if the Vinapplied to the non-inverting input is positive, the output will be maximum positive, and if Vinis negative, the output will be maximum negative. Since there is no feedback from the output to either input, this is anopen loopcircuit. The circuits gain is just the Gopen-loopof the op-amp. Standard two-resistor non-inverting amplifier circuit The magnitude ofGopen-loopis typically very large-seldom less than a million-and therefore even a quite small difference betweenV_{!+}andV_{!-}(a few microvolts or less) will result in amplifier saturation, where the output voltage goes to either the extreme maximum or minimum end of its range, which is set approximately by the power supply voltages.Finleys lawstates that When the inverting and non-inverting inputs of an op-amp are not equal, its output is in saturation. Additionally, the precise magnitude ofGopen-loopis not well controlled by the manufacturing process, and so it is impractical to use an operational amplifier as a stand-alonedifferential amplifier. If linear operation is desired,negative feedbackmust be used, usually achieved by applying a portion of the output voltage to the inverting input. The feedback enables the output of the amplifier to keep the inputs at or near the same voltage so that saturation does not occur. Another benefit is that if much negative feedb ack is used, the circuits overall gain and other parameters become determined more by the feedback network than by the op-amp itself. If the feedback network is made of components with relatively constant, predictable, values such as resistors, capacitors and inductors, the unpredictability and inconstancy of the op-amps parameters (typical of semiconductor devices) do not seriously affect the circuits performance. If no negative feedback is used, the op-amp functions as a switch or comparator. Positive feedback may be used to introducehysteresisor oscillation. Returning to a consideration of linear (negative feedback) operation, the high open-loop gain and low input leakage current of the op-amp imply two golden rules that are highly useful in analysing linear op-amp circuits. Golden rules of op-amp negative feedback Ifthere is negative feedback andifthe output is not saturated, both inputs are at the same voltage; no current flows in or out of either input. These rules are true of the ideal op-amp and for practical purposes are true of real op-amps unless very high-speed or high-precision performance is being contemplated (in which case account must be taken of things such as input capacitance, input bias currents and voltages, finite speed, and otherop-amp imperfections, discussed in a later section.) As a consequence of the first rule, theinput impedanceof the two inputs will be nearly infinite. That is, even if the open-loop impedance between the two inputs is low, the closed-loop input impedance will be high because the inputs will be held at nearly the same voltage. This impedance is considered as infinite for an ideal opamp and is about onemegaohmin practice. Ideal and real op-amps: An equivalent circuit of an operational amplifier that models some resistive non-ideal parameters. An ideal op-amp is usually considered to have the following properties, and they are considered to hold for all input voltages: Infiniteopen-loop gain(when doing theoretical analysis, alimitmay be taken as open loop gainGgoes to infinity) Infinite voltage range available at the output (vout) (in practice the voltages available from the output are limited by the supply voltagesV_{text{S}!+}andV_{text{S}!-}) Infinitebandwidth(i.e., the frequency magnitude response is considered to be flat everywhere with zerophase shift). Infiniteinput impedance(so, in the diagram,R_{text{in}} = infty, and zero current flows fromv_{!+}tov_{!-}) Zero input current (i.e., there is assumed to be noleakageorbiascurrent into the device) Zeroinput offset voltage(i.e., when the input terminals are shorted so thatv_{!+}=v_{!-}, the output is avirtual groundor vout= 0). Infiniteslew rate(i.e., the rate of change of the output voltage is unbounded) and power bandwidth (full output voltage and current available at all frequencies). Zerooutput impedance(i.e.,Rout= 0, so that output voltage does not vary with output current) Zeronoise InfiniteCommon-mode rejection ratio(CMRR) InfinitePower supply rejection ratiofor both power supply rails. In practice, none of these ideals can be realized, and various shortcomings and compromises have to be accepted. Depending on the parameters of interest, a real op-amp may be modelled to take account of some of the non-infinite or non-zero parameters using equivalent resistors and capacitors in the op-amp model. The designer can then include the effects of these undesirable, but real, effects into the overall performance of the final circuit. Some parameters may turn out to havenegligibleeffect on the final design while others represent actual limitations of the final performance that must be evaluated. History: 1941: First (vacuum tube) op-amp An op-amp, defined as a general-purpose, DC-coupled, high gain, inverting feedbackamplifier, is first found in US Patent 2,401,779 Summing Amplifier filed by Karl D. Swartzel Jr. of Bell labs in 1941. This design used threevacuum tubesto achieve a gain of 90dB and operated on voltage rails of  ±350V. It had a single inverting input rather than differential inverting and non-inverting inputs, as are common in todays op-amps. ThroughoutWorld War II, Swartzels design proved its value by being liberally used in the M9artillery directordesigned at Bell Labs. This artillery director worked with the SCR584radarsystem to achieve extraordinary hit rates (near 90%) that would not have been possible otherwise. 1947: First op-amp with an explicit non-inverting input In 1947, the operational amplifier was first formally defined and named in a paper by Professor John R. Ragazzini of Columbia University. In this same paper a footnote mentioned an op-amp design by a student that would turn out to be quite significant. This op-amp, designed by Loebe Julie, was superior in a variety of ways. It had two major innovations. Its input stage used a long-tailedtriode pair with loads matched to reducedriftin the output and, far more importantly, it was the first op-amp design to have two inputs (one inverting, the other non-inverting). The differential input made a whole range of new functionality possible, but it would not be used for a long time due to the rise of the chopper-stabilized amplifier. 1949: First chopper-stabilized op-amp In 1949, Edwin A. Goldberg designed achopper-stabilized op-amp.This set-up uses a normal op-amp with an additionalACamplifier that goes alongside the op-amp. The chopper gets an AC signal fromDCby switching between the DC voltage and ground at a fast rate (60Hz or 400Hz). This signal is then amplified, rectified, filtered and fed into the op-amps non-inverting input. This vastly improved the gain of the op-amp while significantly reducing the output drift and DC offset. Unfortunately, any design that used a chopper couldnt use their non-inverting input for any other purpose. Nevertheless, the much improved characteristics of the chopper-stabilized op-amp made it the dominant way to use op-amps. Techniques that used the non-inverting input regularly would not be very popular until the 1960s when op-ampICsstarted to show up in the field. In 1953, vacuum tube op-amps became commercially available with the release of the model K2-W from George A. Philbrick Researches, Incorporated. The designation on the devices shown, GAP/R, is a contraction for the complete company name. Two nine-pin 12AX7 vacuum tubes were mounted in an octal package and had a model K2-P chopper add-on available that would effectively use up the non-inverting input. This op-amp was based on a descendant of Loebe Julies 1947 design and, along with its successors, would start the widespread use of op-amps in industry. 1961: First discrete IC op-amps With the birth of thetransistorin 1947, and the silicon transistor in 1954, the concept of ICs became a reality. The introduction of theplanar processin 1959 made transistors and ICs stable enough to be commercially useful. By 1961, solid-state, discrete op-amps were being produced. These op-amps were effectively small circuit boards with packages such as edge-connectors. They usually had hand-selected resistors in order to improve things such as voltage offset and drift. The P45 (1961) had a gain of 94dB and ran on  ±15V rails. It was intended to deal with signals in the range of  ±10V. 1962: First op-amps in potted modules By 1962, several companies were producing modular potted packages that could be plugged intoprinted circuit boards. These packages were crucially important as they made the operational amplifier into a singleblack boxwhich could be easily treated as a component in a larger circuit. 1963: First monolithic IC op-amp In 1963, the first monolithic IC op-amp, the  µA702 designed byBob Widlarat Fairchild Semiconductor, was released. MonolithicICsconsist of a single chip as opposed to a chip and discrete parts (a discrete IC) or multiple chips bonded and connected on a circuit board (a hybrid IC). Almost all modern op-amps are monolithic ICs; however, this first IC did not meet with much success. Issues such as an uneven supply voltage, low gain and a small dynamic range held off the dominance of monolithic op-amps until 1965 when the  µA709 was released. 1966: First varactor bridge op-amps Since the 741, there have been many different directions taken in op-amp design.Varactorbridge op-amps started to be produced in the late 1960s; they were designed to have extremely small input current and are still amongst the best op-amps available in terms of common-mode rejection with the ability to correctly deal with hundreds of volts at their inputs. 1968: Release of the  µA741 The popularity of monolithic op-amps was further improved upon the release of the LM101 in 1967, which solved a variety of issues, and the subsequent release of the  µA741 in 1968. The  µA741 was extremely similar to the LM101 except that Fairchilds facilities allowed them to include a 30pF compensation capacitor inside the chip instead of requiring external compensation. This simple difference has made the 741thecanonical op-amp and many modern amps base their pin out on the 741s.The  µA741 is still in production, and has become ubiquitous in electronics-many manufacturers produce a version of this classic chip, recognizable by part numbers containing741. 1970: First high-speed, low-input current FET design In the 1970s high speed, low-input current designs started to be made by usingFETs. These would be largely replaced by op-amps made withMOSFETsin the 1980s. During the 1970s single sided supply op-amps also became available. 1972: Single sided supply op-amps being produced A single sided supply op-amp is one where the input and output voltages can be as low as the negative power supply voltage instead of needing to be at least two volts above it. The result is that it can operate in many applications with the negative supply pin on the op-amp being connected to the signal ground, thus eliminating the need for a separate negative power supply. The LM324 (released in 1972) was one such op-amp that came in a quad package (four separate op-amps in one package) and became an industry standard. In addition to packaging multiple op-amps in a single package, the 1970s also saw the birth of op-amps in hybrid packages. These op-amps were generally improved versions of existing monolithic op-amps. As the properties of monolithic op-amps improved, the more complex hybrid ICs were quickly relegated to systems that are required to have extremely long service lives or other specialty systems. Recent trends Recently supply voltages in analog circuits have decreased (as they have in digital logic) and low-voltage op-amps have been introduced reflecting this. Supplies of  ±5V and increasingly 5V are common. To maximize the signal range modern op-amps commonly have rail-to-rail inputs (the input signals can range from the lowest supply voltage to the highest) and sometimes rail-to-rail outputs. A very typical commercial IC op amp circuit is the 741. This IC has been available for many years, and a number of variations have been developed to help minimize the errors inherent in its construction and operation. Nevertheless, the analysis we will perform here using the 741 will apply to any other IC op amp, if you take into account the actual parameters of the device you are actually using. Therefore, we will use the 741 as our example IC op amp. A differential amplifier connected as an op amp. To the right is a circuit using the 741 op amp IC, with the input and feedback resistors that are required for this circuit to operate properly in an analog computer. Note that there are actually two inputs to the amplifier, designated + and - in the figure. This is because the 741, like all IC op amps of this type, is in fact a differential amplifier. Thus, the output voltage is determined by thedifferencebetween the two input voltages. The +, or non-inverting input, is grounded through a resistor as shown. Thus, its input voltage is always zero. The -, or inverting input, is the one that is actively used. Thus, we establish that the inverting input, which is also the junction of the input and feedback resistors, must operate as a virtual ground in order to keep the output voltage within bounds. So far, so good, but what about the actual voltage gain? It cant possibly be infinite, and if it isnt infinite, there must be some non-zero input voltage to produce a non-zero output voltage. In fact, the typical open-loop voltage gain for the 741 is 200,000. This does not mean that every such device has a gain of 200,000, however. What is guaranteed is that the commercial version (the 741C) will have a minimum gain of 20,000. The military version is more stringently selected, and will have a minimum voltage gain of 50,000. For the 741C, then, with a maximum output voltage of  ±10 volts, the maximum input voltage required at the inverting input can never be more than  ±10/20,000 =  ±0.0005 volt, or 0.5 milli volts. Typical measurement accuracy uses three significant digits, so we would measure voltages from 0.00 volts to  ±10.00 volts. The maximum input voltage is more than an order of magnitude smaller than this, and hence is insignificant in a typical analog computer. But what about input bias current? Surely the IC requires at leastsomesmall amount of input current? Well, yes, it does. The 741C requires a typical input bias current of 80 nA (thats nano Amperes, where 1nA=10-9A). The maximum input bias current for the 741C is 500nA, or 0.5 µA. So how do we use this information to minimize the errors it could cause into insignificance? Well, lets consider the resistance that would be required for this current to cause a significant voltage drop. If we keep the voltage error small enough, we can ignore it as immeasurable. This means we must keep the values of Rinand Rfas small as possible, consistent with proper operation of the circuit. At the same time, we cannot make them too small, or the op amp itself will be overloaded. For proper operation, the total load resistance at the 741 output should not be smaller than 2000 ohms, or 2k. This amounts to a maximum output current of 5 mA at 10 volts output. This means that the output resistance of the op amp is not the desired zero ohms. However, as long as you dont draw too much current from the output, the use of heavy negative feedback has an added benefit: It makes the op amp behaveas ifit had zero output resistance. That is, any internal resistance will simply mean that the op amp must produce an internal voltage enough higher than the calculated value so that the final output voltage will be the calculated value. So what if we make our input and feedback resistors about 10k each? Then the current demand on the output is only 1 mA at 10 volts, leaving plenty of capacity for additional inputs. And the voltage caused by the input bias current wont exceed 10,000-0.5-10-6=0.005volt. This is half of the least significant digit of our measurement capability, which is not as good as we would like, but will do. Also, this is the absolute worst-case situation; most practical applications wont see an error this big. In addition, the input bias current applies equally to both inputs. This is the reason for the resistor connecting the + input to ground. If this resistor is close in value to the parallel combination of Rin and Rf, the same voltage error will be generated at the two inputs, and will therefore be cancelled out, or very nearly. Thus, we can relegate this problem to true insignificance by means of correct circuit design and careful choice of component values. The 741 does also have two error characteristics, calledinput offset voltageandinput offset current, which define the inherent errors which may exist between the two inputs to the IC. However, the 741 also has the means for balancing these variations out, so the actual errors are minimized or eliminated, thus once again removing them from significance. A problem with any op amp is a limited frequency response. The higher the gain of the complete circuit, the lower the working frequency response. This is one reason an overall gain of 20 is a practical limit. (Another reason is that the input and feedback resistors become too different from each other.) Also, the standard 741 has aslew rateof 0.5v/ µs. This means that the output voltage cannot change any faster than this. The newer generation of op amps, such as the 741S, have a slew rate more like 5v/ µs, and hence can operate over the entire audio range of frequencies without serious problems. Classification of Operational Amplifier: Op-amps may be classified by their construction: discrete (built from individualtransistorsortubes/valves) IC (fabricated in anIntegrated circuit) most common hybrid IC op-amps may be classified in many ways, including: Military, Industrial, or Commercial grade (for example: the LM301 is the commercial grade version of the LM101, the LM201 is the industrial version). This may defineoperating temperatureranges and other environmental or quality factors. Classification by package type may also affect environmental hardiness, as well as manufacturing options;DIP, and other through-hole packages are tending to be replaced bySurface-mount devices. Classification by internal compensation: op-amps may suffer from high frequencyinstabilityin somenegative feedbackcircuits unless a small compensation capacitor modifies the phase- and frequency- responses; op-amps with capacitor built in are termedcompensated, or perhaps compensated forclosed-loopgains down to (say) 5, others: uncompensated. Single, dual and quad versions of many commercial op-amp IC are available, meaning 1, 2 or 4 operational amplifiers are included in the same package. Rail-to-rail input (and/or output) op-amps can work with input (and/or output) signals very close to the power supply rails. CMOSop-amps (such as the CA3140E) provide extremely high input resistances, higher thanJFET-input op-amps, which are normally higher thanbipolar-input op-amps. Other varieties of op-amp include programmable op-amps (simply meaning the quiescent current, gain, and bandwidth and so on can be adjusted slightly by an external resistor). Manufacturers often tabulate their op-amps according to purpose, such as low-noise pre-amplifiers, wide bandwidth amplifiers, and so on. Single-Ended Inputs With single-ended inputs you connect one wire from each signal source to the data acquisition interface the Micro link. The measurement is the difference between the signal and the ground or earth at the Micro link. This method relies on the signal source being grounded (earthed), and the signal sources ground and the Micro links ground having the same value. Differences in Ground Levels We think of the ground as a constant 0V, but in reality the ground, or earth, is at a different level in different places. The closer together the places, the more likely the ground level will be the same. Make a connection between two grounds and the difference in levels can drive large currents, known as earth or ground loops. This can lead to errors when using single-ended inputs. Noise Errors Single-ended inputs are sensitive to noise errors. Noise (unwanted signal contamination) is added because signal wires act as aerials, picking up environmental electrical activity. With single-ended inputs you have no way of distinguishing between the signal and the noise. The ground and noise problems can be solved by differential inputs. Differential Inputs With differential inputs, two signal wires run from each signal source to the Microlink. One goes to a + input and one to a input. Two high-impedance amplifiers monitor the voltage between the input and the interface ground. The outputs of the two amplifiers are then subtracted by a third amplifier to give the difference between the + and inputs, meaning that any voltage common to both wires is removed. This can solve both of the problems caused by single-ended connections. It means that differences in grounds are irrelevant (as long as they arent too large for the amplifier to handle). It also reduces noise twisting wires together will ensure that any noise picked up will be the same for each wire. Floating Signals A common problem when using differential inputs is neglecting any connection to ground. For example, battery-powered instruments and thermocouples have no connection to a buildings ground. You could connect a battery, for instance, between the Micro links + and inputs. The 2 input amplifiers will try to monitor the voltages + to earth and to ground. However, as there is no connection between the battery and ground, these voltages to ground could be any value and may be too large for the amplifier to handle. For these floating signal sources you should provide a reference. The Micro link has a socket labelled 0V. Run a wire from, say, the wire to this OV socket, either directly or via a resistor. (If your signal source is itself grounded dont make a connection to the Micro links 0V socket.) Amplifier Ability and Operating Range The three amplifiers used for differential inputs are collectively known as an instrumentation amplifier. Ideally, as previously described, any voltage common to both wires (common mode voltage) is cancelled. In practice the two input amplifiers are not perfectly matched so a fraction of the common mode voltage may appear. How closely the instrumentation amplifier approaches the ideal is expressed as the common mode rejection ratio (CMRR). This is the reciprocal of the fraction let through and is usually given in decibels. The higher the rejection ratio the better. Another specification to look for is the common mode range. This is the maximum contamination voltage with which the amplifier can cope. If the difference in ground levels between your interface and signal source exceeds this value, your measurement will be inaccurate. Less Signals with Differential Inputs? An obvious disadvantage of differential inputs is that you need twice as many wires, so you can connect only half the number of signals, compared to single-ended inputs. Should you decide that single-ended inputs are OK for you if you have short signal wires, close together signal sources, and signals larger than around 100 mV for e.g. you can use differential inputs in single-ended mode. To do this short one of the signal wires (usually the input) to the Micro link V input. Differential inputs, therefore, give you the option of either mode. Op-Amp Characteristics: A very typical commercial IC op amp circuit is the 741. This IC has been available for many years, and a number of variations have been developed to help minimize the errors inherent in its construction and operation. Nevertheless, the analysis we will perform here using the 741 will apply to any other IC op amp, if you take into account the actual parameters of the device you are actually using. Therefore, we will use the 741 as our example IC op amp. A differential amplifier connected as an op amp. To the right is a circuit using the 741 op amp IC, with the input and feedback resistors that are required for this circuit to operate properly in an analog computer. Note that there are actually two inputs to the amplifier, designated + and - in the figure. This is because the 741, like all IC op amps of this type, is in fact a differential amplifier. Thus, the output voltage is determined by thedifferencebetween the two input voltages. The +, or non-inverting input, is grounded through a resistor as shown. Thus, its input voltage is always zero. The -, or inverting input, is the one that is actively used. Thus, we establish that the inverting input, which is also the junction of the input and feedback resistors, must operate as a virtual ground in order t

Internet Tools at Dirt Bikes Essay

Communication is an indispensable part of any organization. It is required to keep up with their business (suppliers), employees (internally) and clients (externally). With every day new innovations in technology, internet is the no more a new concept. Another term associated with internet is networking. The companies big or small realize the fact that adapting the latest technology will take their business to new heights or else they will be left far too behind in the race. Hence it would not be incorrect to say that Internet has changed the way business used to run. It has raised the business to international heights. Internet is used on a global scale and provides a universal platform. Similarly building new services, strategies with in the organization is made possible through intranet. It is a medium of providing connectivity with the different department of the organization in the same office. On similar notes Dirt Bike management decided to look for new tools and technology that will best suite their company to make the communication process more effective and efficient. Introduction Dirt Bikes is a small manufacturing company of off-road bikes of its own brand. It is a privately owned company, and has its headquarters in Carbondale, Colorado. It has a staff strength of around 150-200 employees. The company maintains a website. The company has provided the internet access to its employees. To make the internal communication process across the departments more efficient some more tools and technologies needs to be implemented like E-mail, Video-conferencing, messengers. However, some other upcoming tools and technologies are: Mobile Networking Technology covering (3G), Wireless access and Radio/satellite signals Importance of Intranet The concept of intranet is evolving. This internal communication tool can be developed in such a way that integrates employees from all departments. They would be able to view permissible details of each other’s department along with the feature of internal chat, mail and files transfer. The employees will be provided individual login id and password keeping the system secure and traceable. Maintaining employees personal details will greatly help Human Resource department to track and keep updated information for any individual. The employees can check their details available on the network and can report for any changes whenever required. Contact information, attendance, leave balance are few of the named details that can be made available. The Manufacturing and Production department can discuss and forward the design related issues and updates through mail or common chat. The sales and Marketing team can maintain a database for archive with the details of previous sales records and a comparison with the present trends. They can track the sales projections and balance the act of supply and demand more efficiently. Implementation of intranet requires a client /server architecture connected in LAN. Additional Tools Certain departments like the accounts department that holds vital data related to the company and the employees and the manufacturing departments that works on upcoming designs of new model can make use of VPN (Virtual Private Network) that provides a secure and encrypted form of communication with in the public network. It is a cost effective way that provides the combined feature of Voice as well as data networks. The drawback of the system is that may slow down the process during high internet congestion. Another cost effective way of communication is through Wireless access with the help of smart phones and Bluetooth. The wireless access will cover the entire network of the company. Bluetooth can be within a particular department allowing access to printer, computer, phones all at the same time. It will be a low power option having a range of 10 meter. It reduces the confusing and messy cables and at times works without user intervention. The smart phones or the 3G phones technology will the employees outside the organization like the delivery and shipment department. Nearly all employees will feel benefited with the implementation of the above tools. It will definitely increase efficiency helping them to concentrate on the work. And overall the company will benefit too. Wireless Access Wireless technology offers a very flexible approach to stay in touch over the network internally with employees and externally with customers and suppliers. Bluetooth allows accessing internet while connecting to nearly 8 more devices at the same time in 10 meter range.

Negative Human Resource Practice: Telecommunication in Bangladesh

Letter of Transmittal March 25, 2012 Tarana Aziza Khan Lecturer (BBA Department) Northern University Bangladesh Subject: Submission of a report – â€Å"Negative HR Practice in Telecommunication Sectors of Bangladesh†. Dear Madame, Here is an assignment on – â€Å"Negative HR Practice in Telecommunication Sectors of Bangladesh†. This assignment was assigned to us for the purpose of finding the negative practices in human resource of telecommunication sectors. This report concentrates on the telecommunication sector in Bangladesh’s Perspectives.We tried to gather a collection of information to make our report specific. Through, the procedure of preparing the report we developed a clear understanding of total scenario of the negative practices in HR, of telecommunication sectors in Bangladesh. We tried our level best to make this report as reflective as possible. We appreciate to provide any information or classification if necessary. This assignment w as a great learning experience in present organizational environment. Each aspect is considered and studied as required and as per direction of our course instructor.We would like to thank for assigning us such a responsibility and helping us on different aspects of the assignment. Yours Sincerely, Ariful AlamBBA26090370004Section: 8A| Kamrul HasanBBA26090370025Section: 8A| | | Ariful MalekBBA26090370023Section: 8A| | | Anisha FahrinBBA26090370009Section: 8A| Shipra BhattacharjeeBBA26090370008Section: 8A| Table of contents Sl. No. | Contents| Page no. | 1. | Acknowledgement| 04| 2. | Abstract| 05| 3. | Introduction| 06| 4. | About Grameenphone| 07| 5. | About Banglalink| 08| 6. Graphical and statistical analysis (question by question)| 09-28| 7. | Review of the HR situation and recommendation| 29-30| 8. | Comments| 31| 9. | Conclusion| 32| 10. | Appendix| 33| Acknowledgement The submission of this report of â€Å"Negative HR Practice in Telecommunication Sector of Bangladesh† is a great opportunity for us. The success of this assignment depends on the contributions of number of people especially who have shared their thoughtful guidance, contribution, suggestions and experience to improve this report.This assignment has created a great deal of interest in us. We must thank a few people who help and encouraged us to grow our interest. First of all we would like to thank our honorable course instructor Tarana Aziza Khan for her proper guidance and care. Without her guidance and suggestions we couldn’t have completed this assignment properly. She has instructed us how to prepare a report correctly. Also thanks to Grameenphone and Banglalink Telecom for being patient enough to co-operate with us and completing out the surveys successfully.We obviously would like to give a special thanks to the Almighty for giving us such patience and power for completing this assignment smoothly. Lastly we can say that, we have enjoyed in preparing this assignment an d presented it for kind judgment. Abstract Purpose of this assignment is to analysis the HR situation in telecommunication companies of Bangladesh, from the Survey done with Grameenphone Ltd. , and Banglalink Telecom Ltd. We made human resource questionnaires and got Grameenphone and Banglalink employees to fill them up, and analyzed the statistic with graphs and textually.Because it’s impossible for us to survey all 3500 employees (summing up total employees of Banglalink and Grameenphone), we surveyed 33 employees from both the companies combined. Introduction Our project paper is all about â€Å"Negative Human Resource Practice in Telecommunication Sectors of Bangladesh†. For a long period, Grameenphone and Banglalink are ruling the Bangladeshi telecommunication market. Because, there was a great deal of opportunity is gradually increasing. For all the competitions upcoming there is a great negative impact on this sector.Thus, there are a lot of challenges and oppor tunities today for managers to use HR management. In our project paper we have analyzed the survey reports and statistics, and reviewed them comparatively with the negative HR practices. All the data are collected from the companies, meeting the employees face to face or over personal linkage and the primary data are collected from the interviewed survey. Our sample size is 33 individuals (both male, female entry/mid level worker and managers). We designed our questioner in a contemporary way.Almost 90% primary data has collected from the face to face interview with the respondent. Only a 10% data has been collected through the internet. Before Grameenphone’s inception, the phone was for a selected urbanized few. The cell phone was a luxury: a flouting accessory for the select elite. The mass could not contemplate mobile telephony as being part of their lives. Grameenphone started its journey with the Village Phone program: a pioneering initiative to empower rural women of Ba ngladesh. The name Grameenphone translates to â€Å"Rural phone†.Starting its operations on March 26, 1997, the Independence Day of Bangladesh, Grameenphone has come a long way. Grameenphone pioneered the then breakthrough initiative of mobile to mobile telephony and became the first and only operator to cover 98% of the country’s people with network Since its inception Grameenphone has built the largest cellular network in the country with over 13,000 base stations in more than 7000 locations. Presently, nearly 99 percent of the country's population is within the coverage area of the Grameenphone network.Grameenphone has always been a pioneer in introducing new products and services in the local market. GP was the first company to introduce GSM technology in Bangladesh when it launched its services in March 1997. Grameenphone was also the first operator to introduce the pre-paid service in September 1999. It established the first 24-hour Call Center, introduced value- added services such as VMS, SMS, fax and data transmission services, international roaming service, WAP, SMS-based push-pull services, EDGE, personal ring back tone and many other products and services.The entire Grameenphone network is also EDGE/GPRS enabled, allowing access to high-speed Internet and data services from anywhere within the coverage area. There are currently nearly 2. 6 million EDGE/GPRS users in the Grameenphone network. Today, Grameenphone is the leading telecommunications service provider in Bangladesh with more than 36 million subscribers as of December 2011. Orascom Telecom Bangladesh Limited (â€Å"Banglalink†) is fully owned by Orascom Telecom Holding S. A.E, Egypt, (â€Å"OTH†); the ultimate parent company of the group is Vimpelcom, the 6th largest mobile phone operator in the world. Banglalink was acquired by OTH in 2004, and after a complete overhaul and the deployment of a new GSM Network, its telecommunication services were re-launched unde r the brand name Banglalink. When Banglalink began operations in Bangladesh in February 2005, its impact was felt immediately: overnight mobile telephony became an affordable option for customers across a wide range of market segments.Banglalink’s success was based on a simple mission: â€Å"bringing mobile telephony to the masses† which was the cornerstone of its strategy. Banglalink changed the mobile phone status from luxury to a necessity and brought mobile telephone to the general people of Bangladesh and made a place in their hearts. The mobile phone has become the symbol for the positive change in Bangladesh. This positive change that is quite correctly attributed to Banglalink has become the corporate positioning of Banglalink and is translated in their slogan â€Å"making a difference† or â€Å"din bodol†. Making a difference† not only in the telecom industry, but also through its products and services, to the lives of its customers. This c orporate stance of â€Å"making a difference† has been reflected in everything Banglalink does. Banglalink attained 1 million subscribers by December 2005 and 3 million subscribers in October 2006. In less than two years which is by December 2007, Banglalink overtook Aktel to become the second largest operator in Bangladesh with more than 7. 1 million customers. Banglalink currently has 20. 05million subscribers as of April 2011, representing a market share of 27. 3%. Growth over the last years have been fuelled with innovative products and services targeting different market segments, aggressive improvement of network quality and dedicated customer care, creating an extensive distribution network across the country, and establishing a strong brand that emotionally connected customers with Banglalink. Graphical Analysis Options| Tally| Count| Stressed| IIII III| 8| Relaxed| IIII IIII III| 13| Okay| IIII IIII II| 12| Analytical Synopsis: In the question of how the employees ar e feeling, you can see most of them selected either they are relaxed or okay. 0% + 36% = 76% having the positive respond, we can infer that the work in telecommunication sector isn’t that much stressful, while about 24% of the employees are stressed on a daily basis. Options| Tally| Count| Work| IIII IIII| 10| Personal| IIII IIII| 9| Others| IIII IIII IIII| 14| Analytical Synopsis: In the question of how the employees’ stress level rises, you can see them selecting every option almost equally. However, the stress level rising from their professional life is only 30% from the sample of employees surveyed.Which leads the other 43% + 27% = 70% having the positive respond about their work, we can again infer that the work in telecommunication sector isn’t stressful to the majority. Options| Tally| Count| There is| IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII III| 33| There isn’t| | 0| Somewhat| | 0| Analytical Synopsis: In the question of if there is enough employees for ev ery work in their respective organizations, we can see that there is flawless victory in telecommunication sector for the recruitment count, having recruited enough employee for all the works they would need to be done.A hundred percent of the people that we surveyed have said they are being totally supported by their organizations by distributing their works properly among employees. Options| Tally| Count| Excellent| IIII IIII II| 12| Average| IIII IIII IIII I| 16| Flawed| III| 3| There isn’t any| II| 2| Analytical Synopsis: In the respondents’ feedbacks, majority (49%) of them having selected the communication among all the employees are average; and the 36% of them has rated the communication as excellent, while rest of the minority have rated the communication system of the organization in a negative way.Thus, we can infer from the majority having rated the communication system positively, it’s spot on. The minority probably have lack of interpersonal commun ication skills, causing them not to be able to interact or fit in with others. Options| Tally| Count| Yes| IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII III| 28| No| IIII| 5| Analytical Synopsis: In the question of how the organizations are supporting the employees with the technological support, we can see that there is dominant victory in telecommunication sector for the tech support, being based on full on digital works.About 85 percent of the people that we surveyed have said they are being totally supported technologically by their organizations. The other 15% are likely to be generally frustrated, and blaming it on the organization. Options| Tally| Count| Really high| IIII IIII I| 11| Fair| IIII IIII IIII| 14| No pressure| IIII III| 8| Analytical Synopsis: In the question of how the organizations are pressuring them to reach their monthly target or goal, majority of them have responded with the answer â€Å"Fair†, which means they are satisfied with the amount of pressure given by their res pective organization.However, having a close win over the second highest selection â€Å"Really high† rate of pressure could either be good or a bad thing. It might be good because the organizations are working to make their employee more, generating more productivity out of them. On the opposite end, another close call for â€Å"No pressure† at all is also a win-lose situation. Win, because the employees will be relaxed, and less fatigued, but at the same time, the hard working employees will get de-motivated as their better works aren’t being appraised as good as they deserve.Options| Tally| Count| Yes| IIII| 5| No| IIII IIII IIII I| 16| Unsure| IIII IIII II| 12| Analytical Synopsis: This question basically determines how much the employees know about authority’s way of thinking about the human resource policy. About 36 percent of the employees are not confident about authority’s mindset about human resource, whereas the rest 64 percent have conf idently answered the question with direct yes and no, having the majority in â€Å"yes†, we’ll take it that authority is quite confident about their HR policy being flawless.Options| Tally| Count| Fair| IIII IIII III| 13| Average| IIII IIII IIII II| 17| Flawed| III| 3| Analytical Synopsis: The majority of the employees (52 percent) have responded to it saying that they think the HR Policy is average, and another 39 percent have responded saying it is fair, both on positive account. So they’re most likely happy with the policy the way it is. The rest of the employees think the HR policy is flawed, but for their minority, it’s not a big deal. Options| Tally| Count| No, there isn’t| IIII IIII II| 12| There is| IIII I| 6|Unsure| IIII IIII IIII| 15| Analytical Synopsis: As about 46 percent of the surveyed employees have said there was no biasness in the selection process, 18 percent has confidently said that is biasness in the selection process, and res t 36 percent are unsure of it. There’s a chance for biasness if there’s more people in the critical zone (who think there’s biasness and people who are unsure), than people that are saying there isn’t any biasness. Options| Tally| Count| There is| IIII IIII IIII III| 18| There isn’t| IIII| 5| Somewhat| IIII IIII| 10|Analytical Synopsis: Majority of the surveyed people have let it be known that there’s equity among employees, as far as necessary at least. Although, 15 percent of the employees would beg to differ saying there isn’t any equity among employees. Considering minority level on the negative respondents, it’s probable that the minority could be wrong in some extent. Options| Tally| Count| Excellent| IIII IIII IIII| 14| Average| IIII IIII III| 13| Flawed| I| 1| There isn’t any| IIII| 5| Analytical Synopsis: Training is an important process for development of an employee.So we decided to ask them their opinion abou t the effectiveness of the training process that they had gone through. Majority have responded positively saying the training is Excellent (43%), or Average (39%), and about 15 percent haven’t gone through training yet, and the rest about 3 percent, they think that the training system might be flawed. Options| Tally| Count| Majorly| IIII IIII IIII| 15| Somewhat| IIII IIII| 9| Indifferent| IIII IIII| 9| Analytical Synopsis: This question basically determines how many employees are satisfied with their performance appraisal method.About half the employees of the organizations are happy with their performance appraisal method, and the other half feels the need of better improvising. Options| Tally| Count| Fair| IIII IIII IIII IIII | 20| Biased| IIII II| 7| Flawed| III| 3| Unsure| III| 3| Analytical Synopsis: Just as the selection method question, in this question we have tried to get their opinion about how good their promotion strategy is. 61 percent of them have answered posi tively, 9 percent were unsure, another 9 percent think the method is flawed and needs change, and about 21 percent thinks there’s definitely some biasness corrupting the process.So we can infer, there might actually be some biasness in the promotion strategy, which may not be too widespread though. Options| Tally| Count| Over the top| IIII II| 7| Pretty much| IIII IIII IIII| 14| Indifferent| IIII III| 8| It’s not| IIII| 4| Analytical Synopsis: This question determines the employees’ satisfaction level with their compensation, benefits and their switching tendency. According to the statistics data and results we can infer that around 43 percent of people are happy with their compensations and benefits and another 21 percent are more than happy with their compensations as they hink they’re getting treated better than any company would treat them. Out of the rest, there’s another 24 percent who feel the need to be treated better and are kind of in a c onfused state, where the last 12 percent wouldn’t miss a chance to switch to some other organization because they are really unhappy with their compensations. Options| Tally| Count| No| IIII III| 8| Reasonable| IIII IIII I| 11| Extreme| IIII I| 6| Unsure| IIII III | 8| Analytical Synopsis: The majority (34%) of respondents have said the favoritism tendency among same level employees is in a reasonable extent, while 24% have said there was no favoritism tendency.Also, another 24% is unsure about the idea of favoritism in their respective organizations, whereas 18 percent of surveyed people have said there to be an extreme level of favoritism tendency, which could just be some hoax. Options| Tally| Count| Great| IIII IIII I| 11| Average| IIII IIII III| 13| Indifferent| III| 3| Not much| IIII I| 6| Analytical Synopsis: Most of the surveyed respondents (33+40=73%) have replied in positive way saying there’s great / average opportunity to learn or grow in their organization s, whereas the other 27 percent would like to disagree saying there may not be as much opportunity out there for them.It could be that those employees are just bored at work because of having to do the same kind of work over and over again. Options| Tally| Count| Over the top| IIII | 5| Pretty much| IIII IIII IIII IIII II| 22| Indifferent| IIII | 5| It doesn’t| I| 1| Analytical Synopsis: Majority (67+15=82%) having responded in a positive way, arranges this scenario that the job is completely secured up to their expectation, even 15% among them thinks that it’s even better than their expectation. Another 15 percent of people think that their job security could be better, and are not really much impressed with their job security.Rest 3 percent responded plain negatively. Options| Tally| Count| Over the top| IIII IIII IIII I| 16| Pretty much| IIII IIII IIII| 15| It’s not| II| 2| Analytical Synopsis: From the statistic, we can tell the HR Departments of Telecommuni cation sector doesn’t hold back employees from having the chance to relax and let the stress wear off as, 49+45 = 94 percent of statistical population have responded positively, while 6 percent of the employees are probably for some reason left out, maybe for some biasness or whatsoever. Options| Tally| Count| Always| IIII IIII IIII II| 17| Sometimes| IIII IIII| 10|Rarely| IIII I| 6| Not at all| | 0| Analytical Synopsis: Since there’s 0 percent rate of â€Å"not at all† being reached out to when necessary, there is definitely a lot of support from the authority to their subordinates there, and there’s only 18% of employees have said the authority hears them out, it could possibly be for the reason of too much stuff on going for them, having to plan and implement bigger things. Majority being 52 percent, always having good communication with the authority and 30 percent only reaches them when they have issues in their hands. Options| Tally| Count|People th at added extra comments| IIII IIII I| 11| People that didn’t add extra comments| IIII IIII IIII IIII II| 22| Analytical Synopsis: As one third of the statistical population made comments, mostly positive and a few about problems and suggestions, we might infer that the one third of the population are intellectual, and the majority two third of the statistical population not saying anything to the comment, could either mean that they’re most the time dedicated to their work, or the organization’s HR Policy isn’t giving them enough freedom to speak out, for which reason they are too timid to speak out.Review of the report and recommendations From the above graphical and statistical analysis, we can get a rough picture of the human resource practices in those telecommunication related organizations. The dimensional analysis puts up the following picture up in my mind. Employees are more relaxed than stressed every day, and the source of the stress is hardly work life, which is a success for HR department. Even with that, HR department may take a lot of stress reducing procedures to help ease the stress level and keep the employees keen on their work.The organizations also have good recruitment system, gathering enough skilled recruits to cover all the work as per organizational needs. There might be a little biasness in the selection process and promotion strategy, but it isn’t as bad as in other sectors, as it’s not affecting other employees’ mindset, also because even the worst recruit is skilled there. There’s also enough technical support because the organization wants their employees not to face any kind of frustration not being supported by any way.Authority is very confident about the HR policy being decent, while most of the employees are even aware of it. There’s good employee-to-employee, employee-to-authority, authority-to-employee communication, and most of them have strong interpersonal r elationship, and even the acquaintances are friendly there, having affect on the motivation level, uprising it by a sky high level. There’s pretty much a good level on equity among the employees, there could be exception in some cases but still the rate would be very low.The organization sometimes might push the employee too much to achieve their monthly targets, but most the time the pressure level is reasonable for saying. The training process is quite good and effective but a few employees aren’t taken on any training program, whereas the employees are somewhat happy with their performance appraisal method. The compensation received is pretty much more than good for the employees, even with this highly priced lifestyle in Dhaka.Favoritism tendency is also in reasonable extent, which is not a big problem as all of them are getting the same chance to learn and grow from working in the organization. The employees are very happy with their job security also. Human Resou rce Department might be too tight on them sometimes when they’re speaking out, for that they fear to speak out about the organization most the times. I think the HR department and the organization could use some improvement to make the employee satisfaction level even higher to make the most out of them. Recruits shouldn’t be selected at all in bias conditions. * Promotion strategy needs improvising. * Hear out the employees more often. * Arrange more training for employees to make sure none’s left out. * Increase the compensation of underrated employees. * Less pressure on employees, as pressure might cause stress, which isn’t good. * Appraise performance in more ways. * Take more steps to reduce stress. * Let not the employees fear you, causing them to sit shut still. * Allow employees to speak out. I would rate the telecommunication sector as followings:HR Policy| | Recruitment Policy| | Selection Process| | Communication| | Chance to grow and lear n| | Compensation and benefit| | Job Security| | Freedom| | Support| | Overall| | Comment From the data, we can say that most of the employees are pretty much satisfied with their HR policies and they are happy to work with the organization in both Grameenphone and Banglalink. Yes, they would need some improvement, but who doesn’t? There’s always room for improvement no matter how good you are.In other words, the telecommunication sector has one of the best human resource management system comparative to other sectors of Bangladesh. Conclusion In the end, we can say that negative practice in HR in telecommunication is in very low rate, keeping their employees satisfied with adequate compensation and facilities that they expect. If this situation keeps up, we expect the best for the telecommunication business in the future. Appendix * Grameenphone Ltd. * Banglalink Telecom Ltd. * The Internet * Personal References

Essay about Butler Lumber Case Study Solution - 644 Words

Butler Lumber Case Study Solution Options: The Butler Lumber Company (BLC) could obtain from Suburban National Bank maximum loan of $250,000 in which his property would be used to secure the loan. Northrop National Bank is considering BLC a line of credit (LOC) of up to $465,000. BLC would have to sever ties with Suburban National if they were to have this LOC extended to them. | 1988 | 1989 | 1990 | 1991Q1 | EBITDA coverage (times) | 2.5 | 2.26 | 2.15 | 2.1 | Debt Equity Ratio | 0.55 | 0.59 | 0.63 | 0.67 | Current ratio | 1.80 | 1.59 | 1.45 | 1.61 | Quick ratio | 1.37 | 1.09 | 0.67 | 0.54 | Return on sales (margin) | 1.8% | 1.7% | 1.6% | 1.7% | Return on assets | 5.2% | 4.6% | 4.7% | 4.9% | Return on equity |†¦show more content†¦I came up with $3.2m by taking the 1st quarter revenue of $718,000 which is historically approximately 22.5% of the yearly revenue. Assuming this holds true again in 1991, the annual revenue in 1991 will be around $3.2m. This is a 19% year over year increase in revenue for BLC, which is in line with their year over year growth in 1989, and less than the 34% in the best year, 1990. The margins are not great for this industry, and BLC is no exception. Even with the excellent year over year growth in revenues for this company, BLC is on pace for another dismal year of net income in the high $40k. The net income for this company has been constant; $31k in 1988, $34k in 1989, $44k in 1990, and an estimated $49k in 1991. Net income of this size should not warrant extending a line of credit to this company. As the banker, I would not grant a LOC or any other type of loan this size. 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